De stijl van opvoeden van ouders beïnvloedt hoe autonoom en verbonden hun kinderen zich voelen.
De zelfdeterminatietheorie laat zien dat ieder mensen gedurende zijn of haar hele leven een behoefte heeft aan autonomie, competentie en verbondenheid. Grofweg is het zo dat naarmate deze behoeften beter worden vervuld, mensen beter functioneren en zich beter en gezonder voelen. Eerder onderzoek heeft laten zien dat de mate waarin ouders in de opvoeding van hun kinderen de vervulling van deze behoeften ondersteunen samenhangt met de mate waarin kinderen, ook op latere leeftijd goed en aangepast functioneren. Een autonomie-ondersteunende stijl van leidinggeven werkt dus goed (lees meer). Omgekeerd is het ook zo, dat wanneer ouders autoritair opvoeden en een controlerende stijl gebruiken, dit de ontwikkeling van kinderen kan belemmeren. Voorbeelden van zo’n belemmerende opvoedstijl zijn: autoritair taalgebruik, nadruk op straf èn beloning, gebruik van dreigementen, weerhouden van aandacht en liefde als het kind zich niet gedraagt zoals de ouder wil en het opwekken van schuldgevoel als het kind zich slecht gedraagt in de ogen van de ouder.
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Ouderlijke psychologische controlemiddelen
Twee van deze behoeften -die aan autonomie en aan verbondenheid- stonden centraal in een longitudinaal onderzoek van Barbara Oudekerk et al (2014) van Virginia University. In dit onderzoek werden data verzameld over 184 individuen toen zij 13, 18 en 21 waren. In het onderzoek werden verschillende constructen gemeten op verschillende leeftijden (lees voor details het artikel). Eén van die constructen was Parent psychological control wat de mate weergeeft waarin ouders schuld, angst en voorwaardelijke liefde gebruiken in hun opvoeding van hun kinderen (zie hier -rechts op de pagina- voorbeelditems van de schaal waarmee dit gemeten werd). De onderzoekers veronderstelden dat hoe meer ouders van dit soort psychologische-controle technieken gebruikten, hoe hoe minder autonoom en verbonden hun kinderen zich zouden voelen. En dit is wat zij inderdaad vonden. Het onderstaande plaatje vat de onderzoeksresultaten samen (zie de negatieve correlaties tussen parental psychological control en autonomie en verbondenheid):
Hallo Jozef,
Wat je zegt klopt volgens mij. De auteurs maken hier zelf ook melding van in het artikel door het volgende te zeggen: “Although this longitudinal design could potentially help reject certain causal hypotheses, it cannot establish them.”
Ik ben het met je eens dat voorzichtigheid geboden is bij de interpretatie van correlaties. Er kunnen alternatieve verklaringen voor een gevonden verband zijn dan een causal verband van de ene naar de andere variabele, zoals: een derde variabele, omgekeerde causatie en tweerichtingscausatie.
Die alternatieve verklaringen zijn hier natuurlijk ook mogelijk. Het zou kunnen zijn dat een lage autonomie en verbondenheid van het kind, een controlerende houding van ouders opwekt.
Het antwoord op deze vraag kan niet sec uit deze studie gehaald worden. We moeten kijken naar ander onderzoek dat gedaan is. Experimenteel onderzoek kan wel causale uitspraken doen. De vraag is dus of er experimenteel onderzoek gedaan is waaruit naar voren kwam dat een controlerende houding van ouders een lage autonomie en verbondenheid van kinderen opwekt.
Er is veel onderzoek gedaan naar de relatie tussen ouderschapsstijlen en basic needs fulfilment (en well-being en dergelijke) maar ik weet niet uit mijn hoofd daar experimenteel onderzoek bij zit. Ik zal mijn ogen open houden en het hier laten weten als ik iets interessants tegenkom.
Beste Jozef,
Naar aanleiding van je vraag heb ik contact opgenomen met de eerste auteur van het artikel, Barbara Oudekerk. Ik vroeg haar: “I mentioned your paper ‘The Cascading Development of Autonomy and Relatedness From Adolescence to Adulthood’ on my website. A reader responded and asked whether it isn’t possible that the correlation you found between parenting style and children’s autonomy and relatedness is a matter of reversed causation. He argues that slow development of a child may cause parents to act controlling. I responded and said that you had mentioned this in the paper: “Although this longitudinal design could potentially help reject certain causal hypotheses, it cannot establish them.” I don’t know if there is evidence for a causal relation between parenting styles and basic needs fulfilment (and well-being, etc) of children. Do you know? I would appreciate to hear your thoughts on this.
Vandaag ontving ik haar reactie. Zij vond het goed dat ik die hier vermeld:
“Thank you for your interest in our work!
It seems you are asking two questions: 1) whether teens’ poor ability to express autonomy and relatedness might predict increased parent psychological control rather than the reverse, and 2) whether we can say parenting behaviors cause teens to be less able to show autonomy and relatedness with peers.
The first question we were able to test- in our study, parent control at age 13 predicted relative decreases overtime (between ages 13 and 18) in autonomy and relatedness. The reverse was not true in our study (of course, future research is always needed). This is a strong study because we were able to control for autonomy and relatedness at age 13 and see if parent control predicted future autonomy and relatedness above and beyond teens’ autonomy and relatedness at age 13.
Regarding question 2- we are never able to say that one thing causes another for sure. This is because there could always be a third factor that we didn’t consider (e.g., something about a parent’s personality, or the teens’ personality, etc.) that drives both parents’ psychological control and their teens’ autonomy and relatedness. Here we controlled for gender and income, but there are other external factors that might matter too. Thus, we can only say that across adolescence, parent psychological control predicted less autonomy and relatedness. (Importantly, these findings align with a growing body of research suggesting similar findings. For example, in another paper we showed that teens who experienced high levels of parental psychological control were more likely to align their sexual behaviors with their peer’s attitudes about sex.)”
Het is me niet helemaal duidelijk in hoeverre de onderzoekers nagegaan hebben of de correlatie ook een causatie is.
Het lijkt me voor de hand liggend te denken dat deze correlatie eigenlijk omgekeerd verloopt, namelijk dat ouders automatisch meer controlerend zullen opvoeden op het moment dat ze vaststellen dat de otnwikkeling van het kind minder vlot verloopt, maar dat die minder vlotte ontwikkeling het gevolg is van een andere factor (bvb: de aangeboren aanleg) en dat deze derde factor ook verantwoordelijk is voor het feit dat deze mensen zich dan later ook minder autonoom en verbonden zullen gedragen.
Wat is jullie mening?
Een longitudinale studie die gaat over controlling ouderschapstijlen:
A Longitudinal Study of Rejecting and Autonomy-Restrictive Parenting, Rejection Sensitivity, and Socioemotional Symptoms in Early Adolescents
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10802-014-9966-6
Abstract
Rejection sensitivity (RS) has been defined as the tendency to readily perceive and overreact to interpersonal rejection. The primary aim of this study was to test key propositions of RS theory, namely that rejecting experiences in relationships with parents are antecedents of early adolescents’ future RS and symptomatology. We also expanded this to consider autonomy-restrictive parenting, given the importance of autonomy in early adolescence. Participants were 601 early adolescents (age 9 to 13 years old, 51 % boys) from three schools in Australia. Students completed questionnaires at school about parent and peer relationships, RS, loneliness, social anxiety, and depression at two times with a 14-month lag between assessments. Parents also reported on adolescents’ difficulties at Time 1 (T1). It was anticipated that more experience of parental rejection, coercion, and psychological control would be associated with adolescents’ escalating RS and symptoms over time, even after accounting for peer victimisation, and that RS would mediate associations between parenting and symptoms. Structural equation modelling supported these hypotheses. Parent coercion was associated with adolescents’ increasing symptoms of social anxiety and RS over time, and parent psychological control was associated with increasing depressive symptoms over time. Indirect effects via RS were also found, with parent rejection and psychological control linked to higher T1 RS, which was then associated with increasing loneliness and RS. Lastly, in a separate model, peer victimisation and RS, but not parenting practices, were positively associated with concurrent parent reports of adolescents’ difficulties.
Perceived Maternal Autonomy Support and Early Adolescent Emotion Regulation: A Longitudinal Study
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sode.12107/abstract;jsessionid=C6B8E0E389921624BEC5D97F6506435A.f03t04?deniedAccessCustomisedMessage=&userIsAuthenticated=false
Katrijn Brenning*, Bart Soenens, Stijn Van Petegem andMaarten Vansteenkiste
Abstract: This study investigated longitudinal associations between perceived maternal autonomy-supportive parenting and early adolescents’ use of three emotion regulation (ER) styles: emotional integration, suppressive regulation, and dysregulation. We tested whether perceived maternal autonomy support predicted changes in ER and whether these ER styles, in turn, related to changes in adjustment (i.e., depressive symptoms, self-esteem). Participants (N = 311, mean age at Time 1 = 12.04) reported on perceived maternal autonomy support, their ER styles, and adjustment at two moments in time, spanning a one-year interval. Cross-lagged analyses showed that perceived maternal autonomy support predicted increases in emotional integration and decreases in suppressive regulation. By contrast, emotional dysregulation predicted decreases in perceived autonomy-supportive parenting. Further, increases in emotional integration were predictive of increases in self-esteem, and decreases in suppressive regulation were predictive of decreases in depressive symptoms. Together, the results show that early adolescents’ perception of their mothers as autonomy-supportive is associated with increases in adaptive ER strategies and subsequent adjustment.
Middle Childhood Feelings Toward Mothers: Predictions From Maternal Directiveness at the Age of Two and Respect for Autonomy Currently
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sode.12108/abstract
Abstract: The goals of this study were to examine (1) stability of maternal directiveness during interactions with their children from toddlerhood to late middle childhood, (2) direct and mediated relations between mothers’ directiveness when children were two years old, mothers’ respect for autonomy and children’s positivity and negativity toward their mothers when children were in late middle childhood, and (3) differences in these paths by ethnoracial group. Participants included 876 European-American, 789 African-American, and 411 Mexican-American mothers and their children from the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project. Maternal respect for autonomy at Time 2 partially mediated an association between Time 1 directiveness and observed child positivity toward mothers at Time 2. There was also a direct inverse link between Time 1 maternal directiveness and children’s observed positivity toward mothers at Time 2. Relations were similar across ethnoracial groups and for boys and girls. The discussion focuses on heterotypic stability in directive parenting and its implications for children’s feelings toward their mothers.
https://nbsubscribe.missouri.edu/news-releases/2015/0127-children-feel-most-positively-about-mothers-who-respect-their-autonomy/
Do personality traits moderate relations between psychologically controlling parenting and problem behavior in adolescents?
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jopy.12166/abstract
Elien Mabbe1,*, Bart Soenens2, Maarten Vansteenkiste3 andKarla Van Leeuwen4
Abstract
Objective: This research examined whether and how adolescents’ personality traits moderate associations between psychologically controlling parenting and problem behaviors. On the basis of Self-Determination Theory, we also examined the mediating role of psychological need frustration in the effects of psychologically controlling parenting.
Method: A cross-sectional study in two samples (N = 423 and 292; M age = 12.43 and 15.74 years) was conducted. While in Sample 1 both mothers and adolescents provided reports of parenting and problem behavior, Sample 2 relied on adolescent-reported parenting and mother-reported problem behavior.
Results: Psychologically controlling parenting was related to internalizing and externalizing problems in both samples. Little systematic evidence was obtained for the moderating role of personality, with the exception of a moderating effect of agreeableness. In both samples psychological control was unrelated to externalizing problems among adolescents high on agreeableness. Analyses on Sample 2 showed that associations between psychological control and problem behavior were mediated by psychological need frustration.
Conclusions: Adolescent personality plays a modest role as a moderator of associations between psychologically controlling parenting and problem behavior. Frustration of adolescents’ basic and universal psychological needs can account for the undermining effects of psychologically controlling parenting. Directions for future research are discussed.
Parent Autonomy Support, Academic Achievement, and Psychosocial Functioning: a Meta-analysis of Research
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10648-015-9329-z
Abstract: A meta-analysis of 36 studies examining the relations between parent autonomy support (PAS) and child outcomes indicated that PAS was related to greater academic achievement and indicators of adaptive psychosocial functioning, including autonomous motivation, psychological health, perceived competence, engagement, and positive attitudes toward school, among other outcomes. The strongest relation emerged between PAS and psychological health. Results indicated that the strength of the PAS relation was stronger when PAS was reflective of both parents, rather than of just mothers or just fathers among five of six outcomes for which moderators could be examined. Moderator analyses also suggested that PAS correlations are stronger when the outcome is better aligned to the predictor and the relation between PAS and psychosocial outcomes may vary by grade level. Implications for theory and future research are discussed.
The Role of Unconditional Parental Regard in Autonomy-Supportive Parenting
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jopy.12194/abstract
Abstract
Objectives: Two studies explored the role of parents’ unconditional positive regard (UCPR) as perceived by adolescents and young adults in promoting the effectiveness of specific parenting practices that may support offspring’s academic autonomous motivation. Study 1 tested the hypothesis that UCPR predicts rationale-giving and choice-provision practices and, at the same time, moderates their relations with adolescents’ autonomous motivation. Study 2 replicated the association between UCPR and the parental practices, and further explored the role of parent’s authenticity as an antecedent of UCPR and parental autonomy support.
Method: Study 1 consisted of 125 adolescents and Study 2 consisted of 128 college-students and their mothers. The offspring reported on their perceptions of mothers and on their autonomous motivation, and the mothers reported on their sense of authenticity.
Results: Both studies found consistent associations between UCPR and parenting practices that may support autonomous motivation. Moreover, Study 1 demonstrated that the rationale-giving and choice-provision were more strongly related to adolescents’ autonomous motivation when adolescents perceived mothers as high on UCPR. Finally, Study 2 demonstrated that mothers’ authenticity predicted UCPR, which in turn was related to autonomy-supportive parenting.
Conclusions: Findings support the assumption that parents’ autonomy-supportive practices are more effective when accompanied by UCPR. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Motivational Antecedents and Consequences of the Mother–Adolescent Communication
Jelena Hollmann, Julia Gorges, Elke Wild
http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10826-015-0258-8
Abstract: Communication between parents and their children represents an important factor of family socialization. Nevertheless, little is known about why parents communicate in different ways and how these qualitative differences in parent–child communication may affect the child. Building on self-determination theory, the present study focuses on motivational antecedents of need-supportive communication as a function of parental child-related beliefs (i.e., long-term goals that parents have set for their children’s future, and parental child-related behavior expectations in terms of parental dissatisfaction or satisfaction with child behavior). Moreover, the effect of perceived need-supportive communication on children’s prosocial behavior and (externalizing and internalizing) behavioral difficulties will be addressed. Three waves of data from 1125 mothers and adolescents aged between 10 and 17 years were analyzed using growth-curve modeling. We found linearly increasing trajectories in extrinsic parental goals for children and dissatisfaction with child behavior, and decreasing trajectories of need-supportive communication. Individual differences do not vary significantly over time. In addition, holding extrinsic parental goals for children positively predicts parents’ dissatisfaction with their child’s behavior and negatively predicts need-supportive communication. Parents’ dissatisfaction with their child’s behavior also contributes to decreasing need-supportive communication. As expected, need-supportive communication predicts prosocial behavior and externalizing behavioral difficulties. When need-supportive communication decreases over time, both externalizing and internalizing behavioral difficulties increase. Furthermore, the effect of mothers beliefs on adolescents socioemotional development was mediated through perceived mother’s communication quality. These results suggest that parental child-related beliefs are important motivational antecedents of parent–child communication that may prevent behavioral difficulties.
Parenting styles and psychological needs influences on adolescent life goals and aspirations in a South African setting
http://www.researchgate.net/publication/275349076_Parenting_Styles_and_Psychological_Needs_Influences_on_Adolescent_Life_Goals_and_Aspirations_in_a_South_African_Setting
The Link Between Perceived Maternal and Paternal Autonomy Support and Adolescent Well-Being Across Three Major Educational Transitions. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28805437
https://tinyurl.com/492wdp99
Deze studie onderzoekt hoe verschillende copingmechanismen (dwangmatige meegaandheid, oppositionele defiance en onderhandeling) de relatie tussen psychologisch controlerende opvoeding en internaliserende en externaliserende problemen bij Belgische adolescenten modereren of mediëren. De resultaten geven aan dat oppositionele defiance de associatie tussen psychologisch controlerend ouderschap en externaliserende problemen verergert, terwijl zowel dwangmatige naleving als onderhandeling de associatie met internaliserende problemen verergeren. Bovendien spelen zowel oppositionele defiance als onderhandeling een deels mediërende rol in de associaties tussen psychologisch controlerende opvoeding en internaliserende en externaliserende problemen. De studie suggereert dat oppositionele defiance en dwangmatige meegaandheid disfunctionele copingreacties zijn, terwijl onderhandeling zowel positieve als negatieve effecten heeft.